IDENTIFICATION ARTICLES

Identification of small Calidris species: Western Sandpiper, Semipalmated Sandpiper, Red-necked Stint, Little Stint, Long-toed Stint and Least Sandpiper

This article deals with the identification of the small Calidris Sandpipers, often referred to as "peeps" - Western Sandpiper (Calidris mauri), Semipalmated Sandpiper (Calidris pusilla), Red-necked Stint (Calidris pusilla), Little Stint (Calidris minuta), Long-toed Stint (Calidris subminuta) and Least Sandpiper (Calidris minutilla). All these species nest in the Arctic Circle and then migrate south to winter in the tropics or Southern Hemisphere. Due to their long migration routes these birds are often encountered in a wide geographical area in North America and in Europe and Asia.

Although the species are quite similar in size, structure and plumage characters most individuals can be easily separated through a combination of plumage, calls and behaviour. The following article splits these species into three groups for ease of comparison, although in poor views birds from one group could be confused with birds from another. The three groups that I have split them up into are:

1). Western and Semipalmated Sandpipers.

2). Red-necked and Little Stints.

3). Least Sandpiper and Long-toed Stint.

The feather patterning of peeps on the upperparts and wings can be quite complex. The patterns exhibited will provide valuable identification pointers and so any observer must accurately describe and name each area. For ease in identification the scapulars can be divided into two groups: two rows of lower scapulars and three rows of upper scapulars, however it should be noted that the tiny upper row of the latter is often partly or nearly completely covered by the overlapping outer row of mantle feathers. This division of feather tracts can be important when looking at peeps of different ages. In juvenile stints the pattern of the rear lower scapulars is often an important identification point. The arrangement of the scapulars can vary from closely folded to fully spread. When the scapulars are folded they lie in a compact group along the top of the wing, revealing most of the innerwing-coverts; when they are spread most of the innerwing-coverts are concealed. These two are often "separated" by a demarcation line between the innerwing-coverts and the lower scapulars by the small size of the former and the larger size of the latter.

General Plumage features of Stints or peeps at different life stages - Text by the fantastic identification expert, the late Peter J. Grant.

"The timing and extent of moults are variable, according to individual variation, timing of breeding and migration, and species.

Juvenile - In stints, full juvenile plumage is normally retained during the first southward migration and is usually much the commonest plumage amongst autumn migrants from mid-August onwards. Its appearance is distinct from other plumages encountered in autumn, the upperparts and wings being uniformly fresh and unworn, with an orderly, regular pattern. Any rufous tones become reduced through wear and fading, so that juveniles average less rufous later in the autumn. The strength of any rufous colouration also varies individually. The whitish fringes of upperparts feathers are also prone to wear, so that the prominence of any mantle V or scapular V may be much reduced by late autumn. The acquisition of only a few grey, first-winter mantle feathers or scapulars can also reduce the strength of any mantle V or scapular V and give a greyer general appearance to the upperparts. Little Stint Calidris minuta in this stage of moult can look superficially like Semipalmated Sandpiper C. pusilla in these respects, emphasising the need for close views to determine the precise state of plumage if a juvenile rare stint is suspected.

First-winter - Acquired by post-juvenile moult, typically during september to November, involving head and body feathers (including scapulars) and some wing-coverts. The start of the moult is apparently usually triggered by arrival on or near the wintering area. Distinguishable from adult-winter plumage only if the distinctive pattern of retained juvenile feathers (usually among the innerwing-coverts) can be discerned. Retained juvenile feathers are prone to wear and fade, lessening the differences from adult winter, especially from mid-winter onwards.

First-summer - Acquired by a moult involving a variable number - usually not all - of the primaries, secondaries and tail feathers (typically during December to April), and all of the head and body feathers and wing-coverts (typically during February to May). First-summer plumage is highly variable in appearance. At least a substantial proportion of first-summer individuals of some species (Semipalmated Sandpiper, Western Sandpiper and Red-necked Stint) apparently remain on or near their southern wintering areas throughout their first summer and do not return north to the breeding areas with the adults: the first-summer plumage of these individuals is ofetn little - if at all - different from winter plumage. At least the majority of other stints (Little Stint (as well as Temminck's Stint, Long-toed and Least Sandpiper) apparently do return north with the adults, and these individuals probably average closer in appearance to adult summer plumage. Bearing this in mind, individuals with a substantial prpoprtion of winter-like pluamge during spring and summer (especially May and June) are probably first-summers.

Adult winter - ( = Second winter) Acquired by complete moult, which starts near the end of breeding activity or (in the case of non-breeders and first-summers) from the end of June onwards. Most of the moult is usually completed by the end of September, but moult of primaries and tail feathers may be protracted and not completed until the end of February. Their comparatively plain colouration provides fewer opportunities for specific plumage differences than for other ages, so that structural and voice distinctions are often the best means of identification. Subtle specific differences in grey or brown tones are probably of little value on lone birds.

Adult summer - Acquired by head-, body- and innerwing-covert-moult during January to April. fresh summer plumage of migrants in Spring (e.g. May) has whitish or greyish feather fringes. At a distance, these feathers may look little different from winter plumage. The whitish or greyish fringes are rapidly lost, revealing more of any underlying rufous tones and producing full summer plumage by the time of arrival on the breeding grounds (e.g. in June and July). Adults in late summer typically become highly worn, acquiring an often very dark general appearance due to further loss of feather fringes. there appears to be no consistent plumage difference between the sexes of stints. Transition from summer to winter plumage produced a distinctive mixture of old, much-worn summer feathers and fresh grey winter ones. Little Stint in such plumage looks strikingly different from the usually much more numerous juveniles in migrant autumn flocks, and has provided many false alarms because of its generally greyer appearance and superficial resemblance to Semipalmated Sandpiper. Again if a rare stint is suspected, close views are needed to determine the precise state of its plumage."

It is important to remember that many peeps, especially in winter plumage, are extremely hard to identify and some may remain left unidentified. In recent years there has been a wealth of new id criteria and these have certainly helped to make identification easier.

Western and Semipalmated Sandpipers

Semipalmated Sandpiper (Calidris pusilla) shows a short primary projection, involving two or three closely spaces primary tips. The general shape is much as Little Stint. Western Sandpiper (Calidris mauri) has an obviously longer bill on most individuals, with a slightly decurved tip as well as being larger-headed and square-cut with long tapered bodies, flat backs and a round-shouldered appearance with long legs. The primary projection is very short involving one or two closely spaced primary tips.

Legs

Western Sandpiper - Quite long and black, with partial webbing between toes.

Semipalmated Sandpiper - Black, with partial webbing between toes.

Mean Tarsus Length

	Male	Female
Semipalmated Sandpiper	21.3	22.1
Western Sandpiper	21.8	23.4

"tarsus" is length from middle point of joint between tarsus and tibia at rear of leg, to join between tarsus and middle toe at front of leg.

Bill

Western Sandpiper - Obviously long on most individuals with a deep base and slightly decurved and rather fine tip. the bill-tip expansion is slight or lacking. Birds can often resemble a miniature Dunlin due to the shape of the bill and their overall structure.

Semipalmated Sandpiper - Typically short, straight, deep-based and obviously blunt-tipped in profile, often with a noticeable bill-tip expansion. As shown in the above tables birds from different populations can exhibit different bill-lengths depending on where they originate.

Bill Lengths of Western and Semipalmated Sandpipers

SEMIPALMATED
Adults	Male = 16.6-20.2 (mean: 18.6)	Female = 18.4-22.8 (mean: 20.2)
Juveniles	Male = 15-19 (mean: 17.8)	Females = 18-21 (mean: 19.7)

Geographical Variation from across North America = bill and wing lengths increase west to east. Bill lengths shown below:

Adults in Alaska	Male mean: 17.3	Female mean: 18.9
Adults in Central Canada	Male mean: 18.0	Female mean: 19.5
Adults in Eastern Canada	Male mean: 19.6	Female mean: 21.3

WESTERN
Adults	Male = 21.7-25.3 (mean: 23.1)	Female = 23.8-27.8 (mean: 26.7)
Juveniles	Male = 21-24 (mean: 22.5)	Female = 23-30 (mean: 26.1)

Bill Length and characteristic

Semipalmated Sandpiper	Bill length typically short, 1.5 - 2 times loral distance
Western Sandpiper	Bill length typically long, 2.5-3 times the loral distance

If these figures are accurate for most of the population (these figures are based only on a small sample size) then if an individual bird is a JUVENILE the smallest Western would be a juvenile male with a bill of 21 but the largest juvenile Semipalmated would be a female of 21, showing no overlap in bill length. Only the longest-billed adult female Semipalmated Sandpipers could have a longer bill than the shortest-billed adult male or juvenile male Western Sandpipers. If an individual bird comes from the Alaskan population, rather than the more eastern populations in Canada, the bill size of the largest Semipalmated Sandpiper of either sex is 18.9 (female), this then falls well short of the shortest billed Western Sandpiper, juvenile males with a bill length of 21, thus making all the Westerns measured longer billed than the Semipalmateds.

If an individual bird is an ADULT then the longest billed male Semipalmated is 20.2, far shorter than all ages and sexes of Western. If the bird is an adult female the longest bill length is 22.8, shorter than all female Westerns, but not male Westerns.
The mean bill lengths for the three age or sex "groups" left are Female Semipalmated: 20.2, Male Western: 23.1 and Juvenile Male Western: 22.5, showing that the mean bill length is still far shorter in Semipalmated than in Western. If we take the extreme measurements (not the means)of the Westerns (adult male and juvenile male) the measurements are: Adult Male = 21.7
and Juvenile Male = 21. This leaves an overlap between the longest billed Semipalmated (22.8) and the shortest billed Westerns as 1.1 and 1.8 respectively. From these data it can be seen that the majority of Westerns almost always show a longer bill than Semipalamateds, with only a small minority in the overlap range.

As for the shape of the bill, Westerns, whether long- or short-billed individuals (almost) always exhibit a bill which becomes finer towards the tip, whereas Semipalmated shows a wider bill end. It has often been quoted that Western bills droop at the tip, but this is only really true of females, which exhibit longer bills than males. In Semipalmated it is often said that the bill ends in a "blob" or widens at the tip, and although this is true in many cases it is not a 100% diagnostic feature. Semipalmated Sandpipers also often show a slight kink near the bill tip (about three quarters of the way to the tip) but this can also be missing or not very obvious on some birds.

Right: Presumed male Western Sandpiper, Kii Unit at James Campbell NWR, O'ahu, October 2002, © Mike Silbernagle/USFWS.

Plumage

Western Sandpiper - Larger-headed and square-cut with long tapered body, flat back and a round-shouldered appearance. compared to Semipalmated Sandpiper. Birds can often resemble a miniature Dunlin due to the shape of the bill and their overall structure. The primary projection is very short involving one or two closely spaced primary tips. Juveniles show a prominant white supercilium which is broadest in front of the eye and on the forehead-sides. The ear-coverts are rather pale and uniformly streaked. the crown is often rusty-toned. The upperparts are generally variable from rich rusty colouration to rather greyish, but always shows at least the centre of the mantle and fringes of the upper scapulars rich rufous-chestnut, the latter contrasting with the greyer-toned lower scapulars and innerwing-coverts. The mantle V and scapular V are both faint in most cases and sometimes lacking. The rear lower scapulars are marked with clear anchor-shapes. The underparts exhibit an orange-washed breast of variable strength, and sharply defined breast-side streaking. In the United States of America, post-juvenile moult to first-winter pluamge has often started by August and completed by mid-September to October, earlier than in Semipalmated Sandpiper and so birds occurring in the United States are often in a more advanced (and even completed) moult state than Semipalmated, but of course there is also overlap here, particularly if it involves juveniles, which having only been born that year moult later than adults which have not bred or reached the breeding grounds early and have then left earlier and is possibly only a function of Western Sandpiper's more northerly wintering range.. It should also be remembered that the Western Sandpipers that are going to winter locally begin post-juvenal molt rapidly and can be into a basic plumage quite early in autumn, whereas those that migrate further (and this presumably could include those that visit Hawai'i) may have a longer moult period. Non-breeding adults may moult their complete plumage by the end of June onwards and in most cases is completed by the end of September, however the moult of primaries and tail feathers may be protracted and not completed until the end of February. Semipalmated Sandpiper tends to show much more extensive dark centres to the coverts than Western Sandpiper which usually exhibits only a fine dark streak in the feather centre, lacking the more extensive dark centre of Semipalmated. Winter birds are very similar to Semipalmated Sandpiper but they lack any rusty tones. The upperparts average a shade less brown and are more cold grey, as well as being more uniform than Little and Red-necked Stints. The breast sides are pale grey with sharp, fine streaks, which usually extends as a distinctive complete necklace of very fine streaks across the upper breast, although this feature can be hard to see at long-range. Summer adults exhibit a distinctive combination of extensive bright rufous on the base of the lower scapulars and usually also on the crown-sides, rear-crown, nape, rear-ear-coverts and upper scapulars. The innerwing-coverts are plain grey, as well as the tertials. There are extensive arrowhead-shaped markings on the breast and flanks, which often extend to th event-sides and undertail-coverts as fine streaks. In worn plumage the upperparts may become much more dark with solid black areas.

Semipalmated Sandpiper - The primary projection is usually short, involving two or three closely spces primary tips. The general shape is much as Little Stint. Juveniles have variable colouration although usually the upperparts and crown are usually greyish brown centred on the feathers with buff or very faint rufous fringes. The head is whitish with a prominant supercilium and appears clear-cut. The white forehead sides are less extensive. There is a dark line across the lores and ear-coverts forming a rather uniform dark patch through the eye, which further enhances the supercilium. The upperparts show a faint (or lacking) mantle and scapular V, blackish-centred mantle sides, which give a more scaly pattern than Little Stint. The innerwing-coverts are generally ratheerr greyish-brown, which matches the pattern on the rest of the upperparts. The underparts show breast-side steaking which is rather diffuse and extensive and overlies a warm buff suffusion, which oftens extends across the breast. Winter birds show similar plumage features to Western. The upperparts are more uniform than Little Stint and browner than on Western Sandpiper. The breast side streaking is diffuse and does not join across the breast. Adult summer lacks any orange or rufous tones and has generally dull tones of grey and buff, although sometimes bright feathering may appear on the ear-coverts, crown and upperparts through loss of the grey fringes. The mantle V and scapular V are both faint or lacking. the innerwing-coverts and tertials are plain grey with contrasting black-centred scapulars. The breast and foreflanks are heavily streaked over a whitish background.

Vocalisations

Western Sandpiper - A thin, high-pitched, drawn-out "jeet" or "cheep", coarser and a coarser Dunlin-like "chree", these notes are apparently distinctive.

Semipalmated Sandpiper - Low-pitched and coarse with short flat-toned, husky "chrup" or "trrp" or a harsh "kreet".

Feeding Actions

Western Sandpiper - This is said to be more methodical than Semipalmated Sandpiper, with less frequent pecks and probing as well as being Dunlin-like. The species tends to wade in deeper water than the other species described here too.

Semipalmated Sandpiper - Said to be more hesitant and plover-like than the other peeps, although it can also be fast and active!

Left: Semipalmated Sandpiper © Bill Horn

Note the short, straight, blunt-tipped bill, dark-centred feathers, dark eye stripe and ear-coverts, dark crown and dark-centred feathers. Also note primary projection and overall appearance. .

Left: Semipalmated Sandpiper © J.A. Spendelow

Note the braod bill base, straight-edged upper bill, slightly bulbous tip (very hard to see if in the field on this individual I would imagine) and the slight kink on the lower mandible at about the three-quarter mark.

Left: juvenile Western Sandpiper
Ocean Shores, Washington, 8 August 1983
photograph © by Dennis Paulson. Note the rich chestnut shoulders, well-marked upperpart feathering, streaked crown and the long fine-tipped, slightly drooping bill.

Red-necked and Little Stint

Little Stint (Calidris minuta) is generally small-headed (smooth forehead) and rather round-bodied. The Primary projection is typically long, involving three or four primary tips and two wide spaces. Red-necked Stint (Calidris ruficollis) is generally round-headed with a steep rounded forehead and bulky body, with long body line and attenuated rear-end, mainly an effect of its shorter legs and long wings and tail.

Legs

Little Stint - Distinguished from Long-toed Stint and Least Sandpiper by leg colour and comparitively stout, thick-based bill.

Red-necked Stint - Distinguished from Long-toed Stint and Least Sandpiper by leg colour and comparitively stout, thick-based bill.

Mean Tarsus Length

	Male	Female
Red-necked Stint	19.7	19.9
Little Stint	21.2	21.7

"tarsus" is length from middle point of joint between tarsus and tibia at rear of leg, to join between tarsus and middle toe at front of leg.

Bill

Little Stint - Length is about twice the loral distance and has a fine tip and is very slightly decurved on the lower mandible. The bill-tip expansion is very slight or lacking.

Red-necked Stint - Short, straight with bluntness of tip usually between Little Stint and Semipalmated Sandpiper, with often a vertical expansion at tip, producing a slightly blob-tipped profile. Bill expansion is slight or lacking.

Bill Length and characteristic

Red-necked Stint	Bill length short, 1.5 times loral distance
Little Stint	Bill length longer, 2 (or more) times loral distance

Plumage

Little Stint - Small-headed and rather round-bodied. Primary projection typically long, involving three or four primary tips and two wide spaces. The primary projection is very similar to Little Stint. The toes are unwebbed. Juveniles have a white supercilium and well-marked fine, whitish lateral crown strips usually givin a split-supercilium effect and accentuating the dark ridge in the centre of the crown, with a contrasting grey hindneck. The upperparts show a white mantle V, white scapular V, blackish centred mantle feathers and upper scapulars otherwise fringed rufous. The lower scapulars are sharply fringed and solidly blackish-centred at the tips, the inner greater coverts and tertials are rather solidly blackish-centres, with sharply defined pale (often rufous) fringes. The median coverts and lower lesser coverts are dark-centres with rufous tinges and thus the general pattern and colouration of the innerwing-coverts matches that of the scapulars and mantle. The underparts have confined streaking on the breast-sides, which is typically confined to a few (three to six usually) rather well-defined dark lines which overly an orange-rufous wash, which can sometimes extend faintly across the upper breast, which at a distance gives the effect of an isolated dark-streaked patch on the breast-sides. Winter plumaged birds have slightly darker upperparts than Red-necked Stint, Western Sandpiper or Semipalmated Sandpiper, mainly due to more extensive dark feather centres, which also give a less uniform effect. This plumage is very hard to identify from the other species described here and perhaps of little value on lone birds. Adult Summer is similar to Red-necked Stint with orange-rufous on head, breast and upperparts of varying extent and strength, however the orange does not extend to the throat and is completely pervaded by streaks and dark speckles on the ear-coverts, side of the neck and breast (although they can appear unifrom at a distance). The supercilium is split and usually obvious. The innerwing-coverts and tertials are mainly or wholly summer-patterned, which matches the general effect of the upperparts, without any contrastingly plain areas. They show a prominant yellowish or cream mantle V.

Red-necked Stint - Generally round-headed with a steep rounded forehead and bulky body, with long body line and attenuated rear-end, mainly an effect of its shorter legs and long wings and tail. The toes are unwebbed. The primary projection is very similar to Little Stint. Juveniles have a dull supercilium, not striking white, a uniformly streaked greyish crown, which typically lacks the strong split-supercilium effect or ridge effects of Little Stint. the lores are blackish. The upperparts exhibit a mantle V and scapular V which are both faint or lacking, blackish-centred, rufous-fringed mantle feathers and upper scapulars and mainly greyish lower scapulars, typically with narrow drop-shaped dark centres. The general impression is of rather plain grey innerwing coverts and lower scapulars which contrast with the blackish-centred rufous-fringed upper scapulars and mantle feathers. The tertials are plain with greyish centres and black shaft streaks and whitish fringes. The underparts have extensive streaking on the breast-sides, although it is usually faint and diffuse. A greyish-pink wash can extend right across the breast on some individuals. Winter birds have dark lores, which often appears to extend through the eye as a dark patch. the scapulars are less dark-centred than in Little Stint. Birds in this plumage are extremely hard to tell from Little Stint and in many cases may be impossible. Can be told from Western and Semipalmated Sandpipers by bill-shape differences and toe-webbing. Adult summer is similar to Little Stint (and not really the other species) and shows rich rufous or red colouration on the head, breast and upperparts, which can be highly variable in extent and richness. On "classic" birds the rufous is extensive and includes the throat (not in Little Stint), as well as the ear-coverts, side of the neck and upper breast. the rufous is uniform and not pervaded by dark streaks. the chin and forehead are often white, givinf the species a white-faced look. The breats streaking is often restricted to a necklace of streaks below the red breast patch and on the flanks, but not on the red-coloured feathers. The streaks often form a complete breast necklace. The head does not usually show a split supercilium.

Vocalisations

Little Stint - Voice is a sharp, rather high-pitched and incisive "stit", uttered singly or repeated.

Red-necked Stint - Much as little but apparently consistently coarser, thus "chit", also sharp squeak "week".

Feeding Actions

Little Stint - Feeding actions are usually quick and active, but slower and more methodical surface picking is not unusual.

Red-necked Stint - Actions much as Little Stint

Left: juvenile Little Stint, Halland, Sweden, Sep 1985. Photograph © by Urban Olsson.

Left: juvenile Red-necked Stint, Osaka, Japan, 13 Sep 1983. Photograph © by Takeshi Shiota.

General Features of the four species discussed above

Long-toed Stint and Least Sandpiper

Least Sandpiper (Calidris minutilla) is smaller and in general proportions more like the other stints. The forehead is steeper and more rounded on Least Sandpiper and slightly back-sloping and flatter on Long-toed Stint (Calidris subminuta). Least Sandpiper may recall Pectoral Sandpiper (Calidris melanotos) and Long-toed Stint may recall Sharp-tailed Sandpiper (Calidris acuminata). The most obvious and prominant difference between these two species and the other stints dealt with above is their greenish coloured legs, as opposed to black in the other species. Least Sandpiper has white-based primary shafts and obvious narrow outerwing-bar, whereas Long-toed Stint has brownish primary shafts except for whitish outermost, and thus lacks an obvious outerwing-bar.

Legs - Legs of Least Sandpiper proportionately shorter than Long-toed Stint. The toes of Least Sandpiper are long-looking compared with other stints, but Long-toed Stint has especially strikingly long toes. The hind toe of Least Sandpiper is "normal" for stints, measuring 4.0-4.5mm, whereas Long-toed Stints have hind toes which measure 5.5-7.0mm. The toes of Long-toed Stint project further beyond the tail tip in flight than those of Least.

Mean Tarsus Length

	Male	Female
Long-toed Stint	21.8	22.0
Least Sandpiper	18.6	19.1

"tarsus" is length from middle point of joint between tarsus and tibia at rear of leg, to join between tarsus and middle toe at front of leg.

Bill - On average the bill of Least Sandpiper is slightly more decurved than Long-toed Stint, due to a slightly more curved lower mandible in Least Sandpiper. The base of the lower mandible is dark on Least, but obviously paler on long-toed. On Least Sandpiper the middle toes, tarsus and bill lengths are about the same, whereas on Long-toed Stint the middle toe is usually longer than the tarsus and always obviously longer than the bill.

Bill Length and characteristic

Long-toed Stint	Male = 17.8, Female = 18.8. Base of the lower mandible is pale.
Least Sandpiper	Male = 18.2, Female = 19.5. Slightly more decurved than Long-toed Stint. Base of the lower mandible is dark.

Plumage

Although variations in structure and behaviour are slight, when pieced together they provide strikingly distinctive appearances.

Least Sandpiper - This species is shorter-necked, shorter-legged and has a rather hunched outline in normal feeding posture. Least Sandpiper does sometimes adopt a more Long-toed Stint like posture (stretched neck, upright stance) when alert or nervous, but does not usually adopt the posture for long periods of time. Least Sandpiper has white-based primary shafts and obvious narrow outerwing-bar. Juvenile has a generally plainer and less contrasting head pattern than Long-toed, with a duller supercilium, especially behind the eye and which joins finely across the forehead. On Least Sandpiper the dark ear-covert patch is separated from the dark eye-stripe by a small pale patch (not in Long-toed Stint). The species does not usually exhibit a split-supercilium effect. Overall this species is darker than the other stints, except Long-toed Stint. The innerwing coverts are usually rufous-fringed and more uniform than Long-toed Stint. On Least Sandpiper the underparts usually have breast-streaking over a buffy wash and is more complete than on Long-toed. Winter birds are generally much browner than the other species mentioned in this article. Their head pattern differences are much the same as in juveniles, but less well-marked. The scapulars and innerwing-coverts of Least have diffuse dark centres and pale fringes, giving a strong scaly appearance at long range. Summer Adult Least Sandpiper has narrower and less rufous fringes on tertials and some innerwing-coverts than Long-toed Stint, this species has a head pattern and breast-streaking similar to juvenile birds.

Long-toed Stint - This species is larger, rather small-headed, longer-necked and "leggier", giving an outline which is reminiscent of Wood Sandpiper (Tringa glareola). Long-toed Stint has brownish primary shafts except for whitish outermost, and thus lacks an obvious outerwing-bar. Juvenile exhibits a whiter supercilium than Least, which starts short of the forehead and is well-marked at the rear and merging into the greyish nape which accentuates its capped effect. The dark line throught he eye joins with the dark ear-coverts, unlike Least which has a small pale area between the two. This species frequently exhinits a split supercilium. Overall this species is darker than the other stints, except Least Sandpiper. Long-toed tends to have richer rufous feather fringes and a more obvious mantle V, as well as a longer and broader lower scapular feather line. It also has obvious whitish tips and fringes on the innerwing-coverts. On Long-toed the breast centre is usually paler or unstreaked, unlike Least Sandpiper. Winter Long-toed Stint has distinctive blackish feather-centres and broad, clear-cut grey-brown fringes to the scapulars and innerwing-coverts, which give a contrasting pattern, although this may be less prominant on worn plumaged birds. Summer Adult Long-toed Stint has broader and more rufous fringes on tertials and some innerwing-coverts, also this species has a head pattern and breast-streaking similar to juvenile birds.

Vocalisations

Least Sandpiper - Has a shrill, very high-pitched, rising "trreee" and a lower-pitched, vibrant "prrrt".

Long-toed Stint - Apparently some calls are very similar to Least Sandpiper, but main calls are lower (e.g. a soft liquid "chree" or "chuilp", the latter almost disyllabic), recalling Curlew Sandpiper (Calidris ferruginea).

Feeding Actions

Least Sandpiper - Much as other Stints.

Long-toed Stint - Much as other Stints.

Left: juvenile Long-toed Stint, Japan, Sep 1984. Photograph © by Urban Olsson. Note leg colour (just visible) and upperpart colouring.

Left: juvenile Least Sandpipers, Ocean Shores, Washington, 5 Sep 1983. Photograph © by Dennis Paulson. Note leg colour and upperpart feathering.

A huge number of Useful links on Semipalmated and Western Sandpipers, Red-necked and Little Stints and Long-toed Stint and Least Sandpiper can be found by typing the required name into the search facility at Google.com

References

ALSTROM, P; P.COLSTON and I. LEWINGTON. 1997. A Field Guide to the Rare Birds of Britain and Europe. London.

ANDREWS, I. 1997. The Western Sandpiper in Lothian. Birding World 10:8. Birding World, Norfolk.

BEAMAN, M and S. MADGE. 1998. The Handbook of Bird Identification for Europe and the Western Palearctic. Christopher Helm. London.

CHANDLER, R.J. North Atlantic Shorebirds. 1989. Facts on File, inc. Oxford.

CRAMP, S. et al. 1977-1995. The Handbook of the birds of Europe, the Middle East and North Africa - Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volumes 1 - 9. Oxford, U.K.

DEL HOYO, J.; ELLIOTT, A.; and SARGATAL, J. 1996. The Handbook of the Birds of the World, Volume 3: Hoatzin to Auks. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona.

GRANT, P.J. 1986. Four problem stints. British Birds 79: 609-621.

GRANT, P.J. and JONSONN, L. 1984. Identification of stints and peeps. British Birds 77: 293-315.

HAYMAN, ., J. MARCHANT and T. PRATER. 1986. Shorebirds - An Identification Guide. Helm, Kent.

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